Part I – Puerto Ricans Contributions to All Wars -

WWI Thru Vietnam

Dr. Frank J. Collazo

August 26, 2010

Abstract

The purpose of this report is to highlight the contributions of Puerto Ricans to all wars. I am not carrying the bucket of a “group of whiners (cry babies)” just highlighting their contributions. I launched this investigation to quantify the contributions of Puerto Ricans to all wars from WWI to the Vietnam War. The report is based on facts described in the Bibliography listed in the report. In the last two years, I have sensed that some Americans do not have a clue regarding the contributions that Puerto Ricans have made in all wars.

The aim and concept of the Nationalist party has contributed to the dissolution of the glue between the USA and Puerto Rico. The rejection of the State Governor of Puerto Rico of the Vieques operation has been a distraction to relations between the USA and Puerto Rico. This incompetent governor disregarded the economic benefits of the military base to Puerto Rico, and the US government caved in to his demand without justification.

The US government had the right to sustain the bases without any intervention from the local government. This action by the governor was unpatriotic and irresponsible. The rejection of the Vieques operation is not discussed in this report. The fact of the matter is that Puerto Rico is a territory of the USA with an arrangement of a Commonwealth form of government for insular matters. We cannot afford this dissolution; we are all Americans and we must stand together to meet the challenges of the 21^st Century. It is focused on the heroic contributions of Puerto Ricans in all USA wars except the Civil War. Other issues that are pertinent to the theme of the report are included: Why Puerto Ricans do not vote in Presidential elections, the chronology of the citizenship legislation, and the recognition of US citizenship.

Introduction

The report is comprised of two parts. Part I is the Contributions of Puerto Ricans in the Military, and Part II is the Chronology of the Nationalist Party charter triggered by discrimination practices experienced by Puerto Ricans in WWI and WWII. Only three percent of the population is members that represent this subversive organization, and the media has vigorously heralded their actions. However, the media has failed to address the patriotic actions of the other 97% of the population. It is an attempt to elucidate this misunderstanding by many Americans.

The contribution of Puerto Ricans from WWI thru Vietnam has been underestimated by several government officials and most of the public. In 1906, a group of Puerto Ricans met with the appointed Governor Winthrop and suggested the organization of a Puerto Rican National Guard. The Governor was appointed by the President of the United States of America (the Secretary of the Interior provided the oversight). The petition failed because the U.S. Constitution prohibits the formation of any Armed Force within the United States and its territories without the authorization of Congress.

Discrimination Practices, WWI

The discrimination practices of assigning Puerto Ricans who appeared to have African descent to black units of the Army triggered the motivation of these victims of discrimination to organize the Nationalist Party. The charter of this party was designed to be a subversive organization. The leader of the Nationalist party served in WWI and served as the platoon leader of a truck company in a black organization with a degree in physics (graduated with honors from Harvard) and discharged in 1919.

Discrimination Practices, WWII

During WWII, the discrimination was very obvious in segregating Puerto Ricans who appeared to have African descent. The state of North Carolina refused to host the 375th regiment because the Puerto Ricans didn’t appreciate the segregation laws of the south. Therefore, they were deployed to Panama to defend the canal. When a Puerto Rican regiment was deployed to Europe, they kept the segregation along the black organizations. The Nationalist Party capitalized on these issues of discrimination to advance their cause.

Medal of Honor Decoration

The Medal of Honor was created during the American Civil War and is the highest military decoration presented by the United States government to a member of its armed forces. The recipient must have distinguished themselves at the risk of their own life above and beyond the call of duty in action against an enemy of the United States. Due to the nature of this medal, it is commonly presented posthumously.

The President of the United States, in the name of the United States Congress, has awarded 3,468 Medals of Honor to the nation's soldiers, sailors, airmen, marines, and coast guardsmen since the decoration's creation in 1861. The citations highlighting these acts resided in archives, some for more than 100 years, and were only sporadically printed. The first Army Medal of Honor was awarded to Private Jacob Parrott during the American Civil War for his role in the Great Locomotive Chase. The only female Medal of Honor recipient is Mary Edwards Walker, a Civil War surgeon. Her medal was rescinded in 1917 along with many other non-combat awards, but it was restored by President Jimmy Carter in 1977.

While current regulations, (10 U.S.C. § 6241), beginning in 1918, explicitly state that recipients must be serving in the U.S. Armed Forces at the time of performing a valorous act that warrants the award, exceptions have been made. For example, Charles Lindbergh, while a reserve member of the U.S. Army Air Corps, received his Medal of Honor as a civilian pilot. In addition, the Medal of Honor was presented to the British Unknown Warrior by General Pershing on October 17, 1921; later the U.S. Unknown Soldier was reciprocally awarded the Victoria Cross, Britain's highest award for gallantry on November 11, 1921.

Although being a U.S. citizen is not a prerequisite for eligibility to receive the Medal of Honor, apart from a few exceptions, the Medal of Honor can be awarded to only members of the U.S. armed forces. Sixty-one Canadians who were serving in the United States armed forces have received the Medal of Honor; most received it for actions in the American Civil War. Since 1900, only four have been awarded to Canadians. In the Vietnam War, Peter C. Lemon was the only Canadian recipient of the Medal of Honor.

Medal of Honor Review

Neither Gulf War produced new Medal of Honor, but 44 Medals of Honor were issued between 1980 and 2002. Two posthumous awards were issued for Somalia in 1993 and 42 awards were awarded for previous conflicts, mainly WWII. Most of the new awards were Army Distinguished Service Cross (ADSC) awards upgraded to the Medal of Honor MOH). Unlike the Victoria Cross, the Medal of Honor has a tradition of making belated awards often years after the action being commended. Still there is an “on-going” review of the ADSC to be upgraded to MOH upon the request by Senator Schumer of NY.The Puerto Rican heroes who distinguished themselves in battle with heroism were not awarded the Medal of Honor, just the Distinguished Service Cross. In fact, Senator Schumer from NY has requested a review on a Distinguished Service Cross recipient to be upgraded to the Medal of Honor status.

Korean Awards

During the Korean War, Kelly Hill Battle was defended by a Puerto Rican unit. In some cases the fire mission support was inadequate. In fact, the majority of the soldiers missing in action were 121 casualties. In another battle, some Puerto Ricans refused to fight because the mission did not allocate the appropriate resources to perform the mission successfully. Several soldiers were indicted with mutiny and court martial proceedings were conducted against the victims. I am not endorsing their actions, just reporting what I found out in this investigation. There are two recipients of the Medal of Honor for gallantry during the Korean War; one is from my hometown. The people of Utuado are not afraid to die for the cause of freedom. During the Vietnam War the discrimination gradually was diminishing.

Vietnam was my last experience of a discrimination issue. Four Puerto Ricans were awarded the Medal of Honor for gallantry in battle. One recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross (2^nd ranking decoration) is being review upon request by Senator Schumer from NY.

Puerto Rican National Guard

The Puerto Rico National Guard (Spanish: Guardia Nacional de Puerto Rico is the component of the United States National Guard in the U.S. Territory of Puerto Rico. It comprises both Army and Air National Guard components with a total authorized strength of 17,000 soldiers and airmen. The Constitution of the United States specifically charges the National Guard with dual federal and state missions. In fact, the National Guard is the only United States military force empowered to function in a state status. Those functions range from limited actions during non-emergency situations to full scale law enforcement of martial law when local law enforcement officials can no longer maintain civil control.

The Governor of Puerto Rico may call individuals or units of the Puerto Rico National Guard into state service during emergencies or to assist in special situations which lend themselves to use of the National Guard. The state mission assigned to the National Guard is: "To provide trained and disciplined forces for domestic emergencies or as otherwise provided by state law."

After the Spanish American War in 1898, Puerto Rico came under the United States Flag and there was a discussion by the US military authorities over Puerto Rico's military value. There is no doubt it offered tremendous commercial value in expanding commerce between the US, Central and South America. Because of the political changes in the beginning of the 20th century the military importance of Puerto Rico grew. In 1906, a group of Puerto Ricans met with the Governor Winthrop, and the Commissioner of Interior, Lawrence H. Graham, to organize a National Guard of Puerto Rico. This attempt was met with enthusiasm by the public, and some companies were organized, in different towns around the island.

As the companies were being formed, all of the officers and soldiers had to purchase their own uniforms and supplies, since there was no government funding for the enterprise. This organization failed due to existing U. S. Federal law, which prohibited the formation of any armed force within the United States and its territories without authorization from Congress.

During World War I, Puerto Ricans served in the 373d, 374th, and 775th Infantry Regiments of the National Army and the Puerto Rican Regiment of the Regular Army. Approximately 20,000 troops were trained at Camp Las Casas. The need for a Puerto Rican National Guard became apparent to a young Puerto Rican officer named Luis Raúl Estevez. He was the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the US Military Academy at West Point. He brought the matter up to the then governor of Puerto Rico, Arthur Yager, immediately after the conclusion of World War I. His efforts with the Governor and Legislature of Puerto Rico were met with approval, and the National Guard was organized in 1919. Ultimately, this officer was promoted Major General and appointed Adjutant General of the Puerto Rican National Guard.

The first regiment of the Puerto Rico National Guard, "First Infantry Regiment", was organized on June 2, 1920 and reorganized on December 26, 1922 as the 295th Infantry Regiment. On March 1, 1936, the 296th Infantry Regiment was organized. Before, the 296th existed as a battalion of the 295th Infantry Regiment.

Founder of the Puerto Rican National Guard

Major General Luis R. Esteves (Army) is the founder of the Puerto Rico National Guard.While at West Point, he tutored his classmate Dwight D. Eisenhower in Spanish—as a second language it was required in order to graduate. In 1915, Esteves graduated first in his class and was the first graduate of that class to eventually reach the rank of general. This is particularly impressive when one considers that both Dwight D. Eisenhower (future president) and Omar Bradley (former Chairman Joint Chief of Staff) were among his classmates. One of the problems that Esteves faced upon his graduation was that in order to become an officer in the U.S. Army he had to be a citizen of the United States and Puerto Ricans at the time were not. The War Department (as the Department of Defense was called back then) was able find a precedence when they remembered that during the American Revolutionary War, foreign officers like Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette and Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben were given commissions in the Continental Army.

In 1906, a group of Puerto Ricans met with the appointed Governor Winthrop and suggested the organization of a Puerto Rican National Guard. The petition failed because the U.S. Constitution prohibits the formation of any armed force within the United States and its territories without the authorization of Congress.

On June 19, 1915, Major General Luis R. Esteves of the U.S. Army was a Second Lieutenant in the 8th Infantry Brigade of the army under the command of John J. Pershing when he was sent to El Paso, Texas in the Pancho Villa Expedition. From El Paso, he was sent to the town of Polvo, where he was appointed mayor and judge by its citizens. Esteves helped organize the 23rd Battalion, which would be composed of Puerto Ricans and be stationed in Panama during World War I. He would also play a key role in the formation of the Puerto Rican National Guard.

General Esteves established a policy that all officers and senior non-commissioned officers must carry the “swagger stick” during drill exercises and formal gatherings. US Army General George S. Patton carried a swagger stick throughout World War II; however, his contained a concealed blade similar to a Victorian gentleman's sword cane.

Puerto Ricans in World War I.

Puerto Ricans and people of Puerto Rican descent have participated as members of the United States Armed Forces in every conflict in which the United States has been involved since World War I. One of the consequences of the Spanish-American War was that Puerto Rico was annexed by the United States in accordance to the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, ratified on December 10, 1898. On January 15, 1899, the military government changed the name of Puerto Rico to Porto Rico (on May 17, 1932, U.S. Congress changed the name back to "Puerto Rico"). On March 21, 1915, the first shots by the United States in World War I were fired by the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry from El Morro Castle at a German ship in San Juan Bay.

Puerto Ricans became U.S. citizens as a result of the 1917 Jones-Shafroth Act and those who were eligible were expected to serve in the military. Puerto Ricans who resided in the island were assigned to the "Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry," organized on June 30, 1901. The United States implemented the policy of military segregated units in Puerto Rico.

Puerto Ricans of African descent where assigned to units made up only of blacks, such as the 375th Regiment. Those who resided in the mainland served in regular units of one of the following branches of the United States military, the United States Marine Corps, Army or the Navy. As such, they were assigned to regular military units; however, Puerto Ricans of African descent were assigned to segregated all-black units and were subject to the discrimination which was rampant in the U.S. in those days.

It is estimated that 236,000 Puerto Ricans in the island registered for the World War I draft and that 18,000 served in the war. It is, however, impossible to determine the exact number of Puerto Ricans who resided in the United States mainland served and perished in the war because the War Department did not keep statistics in regard to the ethnicity of its members.

Puerto Rican Military Service

Puerto Ricans fought and defended their homeland against attacks from the Caribs (Indians of the Caribbean) and pirates. They fought against the invasions of foreign countries and defeated the British, French, and Dutch in doing so. They fought alongside General Bernardo de Gálvez during the American Revolutionary War in the battles of Baton Rouge, Mobile, Pensacola and St. Louis; and in Europe against the forces of Napoleon Bonaparte at the Siege of Saragossa.

In the 19th Century, Puerto Ricans fought against the Spanish Empire. They fought for Mexico's independence and in the Latin American revolutions alongside Simón Bolívar. In Puerto Rico they revolted against Spanish rule and fought for Puerto Rico's independence in "El Grito de Lares" and in the "Intentona de Yauco." They also fought for Cuba's independence in the Ten Years' War alongside General Máximo Gómez and as members of the Cuban Liberation Army alongside Jose Marti. At the end of the 19th century, Puerto Ricans fought alongside their Spanish counterparts in the Spanish-American War against the United States in the Battle of San Juan Hill in Cuba, in Puerto Rico when the American military forces invaded the island in what is known as the Puerto Rican Campaign, and against the "Tagalos" during the Philippine Revolution.

Puerto Rico became a U.S. Territory in accordance to the 1898 Treaty of Paris which ended the Spanish-American War. The United States appointed a military governor and soon the United States Army established itself in San Juan.

The Army Appropriation Bill created by an Act of Congress on March 2, 1889 authorized the creation of the first body of native troops in Puerto Rico. On June 30, 1901, the "Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry" was organized. On July 1, 1901, the United States Senate passed a Bill which would require a strict mental and physical examination for those who wanted to join the Regiment. It also approved the recruitment of native Puerto Rican civilians to be appointed the grade of Second Lieutenants for a term of four years if they passed the required tests. An Act of Congress, approved on May 27, 1908, reorganized the regiment as part of the "regular" Army.

Since the native Puerto Rican officers were Puerto Rican citizens and not citizens of the United States, they were required to undergo a new physical examination to determine their fitness for commissions in the regular Army and to take an oath of U.S. citizenship with their new Officer’s oath.

CampLasCasas

There were many military installations in Puerto Rico. Camp Las Casas played an instrumental role in preparing the native Puerto Ricans for the military. On January 30, 1908, the "Puerto Rico Regiment of Infantry" was stationed at Las Casas Camp in Santurce a section of San Juan in what is now El Residencial Las Casas, a public housing complex. Camp Las Casas served as the main training camp for the Puerto Rican soldiers prior to World War I; the majority of the men trained in this facility were assigned to the "Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry."

Puerto Ricans were unaccustomed to the racial segregation policies of the United States which were also implemented in Puerto Rico and often refused to designate them as "white" or "black." Such was the case of Antonio Guzman who at first was assigned to a white regiment only to be reassigned to a black regiment at Camp Las Casas. He requested a hearing and argued his case to no avail. Captain Luis R. Esteves, who on June 19, 1915, became the first Hispanic to graduate from the United States Military Academy (West Point), organized the 23rd Battalion which was composed of Puerto Ricans.

Marine aviation was fairly new. It came into existence on May 22, 1912, and the first major expansion of the Marine Corps' air component, of which Puerto Rico played a major rule, came with America's entrance into World War I. On January 6, 1914, First Lieutenant Bernard L. Smith established the Marine Section of the Navy Flying School in the island municipal Culebra. As the number of Marine Aviators grew, so did the avid desire to separate from Naval Aviation. By doing so, the Marine Aviation was designated as separate from the United States Naval Aviation. The creation of a "Marine Corps Aviation Company in Puerto Rico consisted of 10 officers and 40 enlisted men.

In addition several local militia units called "Home Guard" were organized in various cities and towns to defend and maintain domestic order in the island. Virgil R. Miller, a native of San German, Puerto Rico, who in World War II served as the Regimental Commander of the highly decorated 442d Regimental Combat Team, served in the San Juan unit of the Puerto Rico Home Guard and 2nd Lt. Pedro Albizu Campos organized the Ponce unit of the Home Guard. After a discharge from the army, Pedro Albizu Campos organized the “Nationalist Party motivated by the discrimination practices experienced during WWI and post WWI. He was a Harvard graduate with honors and the Army assigned him to a Black Truck Company to supervise a truck fleet. This is the origin of the Puerto Rican Renegades.

"The Odenwald incident" 1915 – USA's First Shot Fired in World War I. Lt. Teofilo Marxuach's unit of the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry was stationed at El Morro Castle (then an Army base called Fort Brooke) at San Juan Bay. The United States tried to remain neutral when World War I broke out in August 1914. However, Washington insisted on its neutral right to send ships without them being attacked by German U-boats. The American ships carried food and raw materials to Britain. On March 21, 1915, Lt. Marxuach was the officer of the day at El Morro Castle.

The Odenwald, built in 1903 (not to be confused with the German World War II war ship which carried the same name), was an armed German supply ship which tried to force its way out of the San Juan Bay and delivered supplies to the German U-boats waiting in the Atlantic Ocean. Lt. Marxuach gave the order to open fire on the ship from the walls of the fort. Sergeant Encarnacion Correa then manned a machine gun and opened fire with little effect. Marxuach then ordered a cannon located at the Santa Rosa battery to fire a warning shot, forcing the Odenwald to stop and to return to port where its supplies were confiscated. The shots ordered by Lt. Marxuach were the first fired by the United States in World War I.

International Protest

Marxuach's actions became an international incident when the German Government accused the United States Government of holding the Odenwald illegally against its will without firing the customary warning shot as required by international law. The United States Government responded that the official report of the United States War Department made by the commander of the fortress of El Morro Castle, Lt. Col. Burnham, made it clear that only warning shots were made and that none were aimed at the Odenwald. Eventually the Odenwald was refitted and renamed SS Newport by the U.S. Government and assigned to the U.S. Shipping Board, where it served until 1924 when it was retired.

In 1917 the Germans resumed submarine attacks, knowing that it would lead to America's entry into the war. On April 6, 1917, the United States Congress declared war on Germany. By May 3, the Regiment recruited 1,969 men and the 295th, 296, 373rd, 374th and 375th regiments of Puerto Rico were created. The United States also applied their military segregation policies to the native Puerto Ricans. Puerto Ricans of African descent were assigned to all black units such as the 375th Regiment.

Puerto Ricans were to be sent to North Carolina to train for deployment overseas, however Senators from the southeastern states opposed and foiled these plans, citing that Puerto Ricans would be a problem to the laws and customs of the racist Jim Crow policies. Southern politicians were alarmed of the idea of having armed African-Americans in the south and believed that Puerto Ricans of mixed race, who did not understand their racial policies, would only add to their problems.

On May 17, the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry was sent to guard the Panama Canal in defense of the Panama Canal Zone and other vital military installations while the other Puerto Rican regiments guarded Puerto Rico. Puerto Ricans became U.S. citizens as a result of the 1917 Jones-Shafroth Act and those who were eligible, with the exception of women, were expected to serve in the military. In November 1917, the first military draft (conscription) lottery in Puerto Rico was held in the island's capital, San Juan. The first draft number pick was made by Diana Yager, the daughter of the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico Arthur Yager. The number she picked was 1435 and it belonged to San Juan native Eustaquio Correa. Thus, Correa became the first Puerto Rican to be "drafted" into the Armed Forces of the United States.

It is estimated that 236,000 Puerto Ricans on the island registered for the World War I draft and that 18,000 served in the war. Prior to the Jones-Shafroth Act, Puerto Ricans in the mainland United States as all other non-citizens who were permanent residents, were required to register with the Selective Service System by law and could be drafted.

In New York, many Puerto Ricans of African descent joined the 369th Infantry Regiment which was mostly composed of Afro-Americans. They were not allowed to fight alongside their white counterparts; however, they were permitted to fight as members of a French unit in French uniforms. They fought along the Western Front in France, and their reputation earned them the nickname of "the Harlem Hell Fighters" by the Germans. Among them was Rafael Hernandez Marin, who was considered to be Puerto Rico's greatest composer.

In 1917, Rafael Hernández was working as a musician in North Carolina when the United States entered World War I. The Jazz bandleader James Reese Europe recruited brothers Rafael and Jesús Hernández and 16 more Puerto Ricans to join the United States Army's Harlem Hell fighter’s musical band, the Orchestra Europe. He enlisted and was assigned to the U.S. 369th Infantry Regiment (formerly known as the 15th Infantry Regiment, New York National Guard, created in New York City June 2, 1913). The regiment, nicknamed "The Harlem Hell Fighters" by the Germans, served in France. Hernandez toured Europe with the Orchestra Europe. The 369th was awarded Croix de guerre by France for battlefield gallantry.

Pedro Albizu Campos was another renowned Puerto Rican who volunteered in the United States Infantry. Albizu was commissioned a Second Lieutenant in the Army Reserves and sent to the City of Ponce where he organized the town's Home Guard. He was called to serve in the regular Army and sent to Camp Las Casas for further training. Upon completing the training, he was assigned to the 375th Infantry Regiment.

The 375th was a regiment of black Puerto Ricans who were trained by non-Puerto Rican officers for overseas deployment, but the war ended before it could join the fight in Europe. Albizu was honorably discharged from the Army in 1919, with the rank of First Lieutenant. During the time that he served he was exposed to the racism of the day which left a mark in his beliefs towards the relationship of Puerto Ricans and the United States, thus becoming a leading advocate for Puerto Rican independence.

Notable Puerto Ricans in Combat

One Puerto Rican who distinguished himself in combat during World War I was Lieutenant Frederick Lois Riefkohl of the US Navy. On August 2, 1917, Riefkohl, a native of the town of Maunabo, became the first Puerto Rican to be awarded the Navy Cross. The Navy Cross, which is the second highest medal after the Medal of Honor that can be awarded by the U.S. Navy, was awarded to Lt. Riefkohl for his actions in an engagement with an enemy submarine. Lt. Riefkohl, who was also the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the United States Naval Academy, served as a Rear Admiral in World War II. His citation reads as follows: “The Navy Cross is awarded to Lieutenant Frederick L. Riefkohl, U.S. Navy, for distinguished service in the line of his profession as Commander of the Armed Guard of the U.S.S. Philadelphia, and in an engagement with an enemy submarine. On August 2, 1917, a periscope was sighted, and then a torpedo passed under the stern of the ship. A shot was fired, which struck close to the submarine, which then disappeared.”

Lieutenant Frederick L. Riefkohl's brother, Rudolph William Riefkohl also served. When the United States declared war on Germany in World War l, Riefkohl was commissioned a Second Lieutenant and assigned to the 63rd Heavy Artillery Regiment in France where he actively participated in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. According to the United States War Department, after the war he served as Captain of Coastal Artillery at the Letterman Army Medical Center in Presidio of San Francisco, in California (1918). He played an instrumental role in helping the people of Poland overcome the 1919 typhus epidemic.

First Lieutenant Felix Rigau Carrera, from Sabana Grande, had received his pilot training in private pilot schools in Seattle, Washington and Minneapolis, Minnesota. He then traveled to New York City and joined the Marine Corps. After receiving additional aviation training he was commissioned a Second Lieutenant and assigned to the First Marine Air Squadron which deployed to France as the newly renamed 1st Marine Aviation Force in July 1918. There Rigau Carrera and his unit provided bomber and fighter support to the Navy's Day Wing, Northern Bombing Group, thus Rigau Carrera became the first Hispanic fighter pilot in the Marines.

Puerto Ricans in Non-Combat Roles

In 1918, a U.S. Employment Service Bulletin estimated that 75,000 unemployed laborers in Puerto Rico were available for work in the United States. The War Department agreed to transport workers to labor camps in the United States where they would be housed and fed while working on government construction contracts at defense plants and military bases in located mostly in Louisiana, North and South Carolina and Georgia. Many of these work camps, however, subjected the new migrants to harsh conditions and even forced labor, which Rafael Marchán, a laborer, described in his 1918 deposition to the commissioner of Puerto Rico.

By 1918, the Army realized that there was a shortage of physicians specializing in anesthesia, a low salary specialty required in the military operating rooms. Therefore, the Army reluctantly began hiring women physicians as civilian contract employees. The first Puerto Rican woman doctor to serve in the Army under contract was Dr. Dolores Piñero from San Juan. She was assigned to the San Juan base hospital where she worked as an anesthesiologist during the mornings and in the laboratory during the afternoons.

Dr. Piñero and four male colleagues received orders to open a 400-bed hospital in Ponce, Puerto Rico, to care for the patients who had been infected with the influenza or as it was also known "the Swine Flu." The Swine Flu had swept through Army camps and training posts around the world, infecting one quarter of all soldiers and killing more than 55,000 American troops.

Fernando E. Rodríguez Vargas, a dentist, joined the United States Army on August 16, 1917, and on September 14, was commissioned a First Lieutenant. Rodríguez Vargas was assigned to the Army Dental Reserve Corps and attended a course at the Medical Officer's Training Camp at Camp Greenleaf, Georgia before being sent overseas to the United Kingdom. On August 1919, he was reassigned to San Juan, Puerto Rico and served in Camp Las Casas. On February 18, 1921, Rodriguez Vargas was sent to Washington, D.C. and assigned to the Army Dental Corps where he continued his investigations in the field of bacteriology. Rodríguez Vargas was there as an educator and investigator of the bacteriological aspects of dental diseases. His research led him to discover the bacteria which causes dental caries. According to his investigations, three types of the Lactobacillus species, during the process of fermentation, are the causes of cavities.

First Lieutenant Pedro Del Valle, the first Hispanic to reach the rank of Lieutenant General in the Marine Corps and who in World War II would play an instrumental role in seizures of Guadalcanal and Okinawa, commanded the Marine detachment on board the USS Texas (BB-35) in the North Atlantic during World War I. In 1919, he participated in the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet.

Aftermath

Puerto Rican migration to the United States increased during and after World War I. Many of those who went to the United States to work in the wartime factories or served in mainland military units made their homes in working-class communities that were mostly populated by Latinos.

The Porto Rico Regiment returned to Puerto Rico in March 1919 and was renamed the 65th Infantry Regiment under the Reorganization Act of June 4, 1920. The 65th went on to serve in World War II and the Korean War, where its members distinguished themselves in combat.

The need for a Puerto Rican National Guard unit became apparent to General Luis R. Esteves, who had served as instructor of Puerto Rican Officers for the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry at Camp Las Casas in Puerto Rico. His request was met with the approval of the government and Puerto Rican Legislature. In 1919, the first regiment of the Puerto Rican National Guard was organized; Esteves became the first official Commandant of the Puerto Rican National Guard. He was a classmate of General Eisenhower.

Some of the Puerto Ricans who served in World War I continued in the military and led distinguished careers, among them: Teofilo Marxuach who retired in 1922 with the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. As a civilian he worked as a civil engineer for the Department of Interior, Luis R. Esteves, who founded the Puerto Rico National Guard and retired in 1957 with the rank of Major General; Virgil R. Miller, led the 442nd Regimental Combat Team in World War II, the most decorated unit in U.S. military history. After the Second World War he retired with the rank of Colonel, Frederick Lois Riefkohl who retired in 1947 with the rank of Rear Admiral.

Frederick's brother Rudolph W. Riefkohl' retired with the rank of Colonel and went on to become the mayor of the town of Surfside, Florida, and Pedro del Valle, who as the Commanding General of the U.S. 1st Marine Division during World War II, played an instrumental role in the defeat of the Japanese forces in Okinawa and is the only Hispanic to have retired from the Marine Corps with the rank of Lieutenant General.

Chief Gunner's Mate Joseph B. Aviles, Sr., who served in the United States Navy during the war, joined the United States Coast Guard in 1925, and was the first Hispanic to be promoted to Chief Petty Officer (March 27, 1943) in said branch of the military. Upon the outbreak of World War II, Aviles received a war-time promotion to Chief Warrant Officer (November 27, 1944), thus becoming the first Hispanic American to reach that level as well.

Others led distinguished careers as civilians, among them the following: Dr. Dolores Piñero who returned to her private practice in Río Piedras after her contract was terminated at the end of the war. Rafael Hernández Marin who is considered as the greatest composer of Puerto Rican music, Pedro Albizu Campos lawyer and distinguished political leader became the president of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party from 1930 until his death, and Felix Rigau Carrera also known as "El Aguila de Sabana Grande" (The Eagle from Sabana Grande), who was the first Puerto Rican pilot and the first Puerto Rican pilot to fly on air mail carrying duties in Puerto Rico.

It is estimated that 18,000 Puerto Ricans from the Porto Rico Regiment served in the war, and that 335 were wounded by the chemical gas experimentation which the United States conducted as part of its active chemical weapons program in Panama. However, neither the military nor the War Department of the United States kept statistics in regard to the total number of Puerto Ricans who served in the regular units of the Armed Forces (United States mainland forces). Therefore, it is impossible to determine the exact number of Puerto Ricans who served and perished in World War I.

The "Monumento de la Recordacion" that is a monument in San Juan, Puerto Rico dedicated to Puerto Rico's fallen military heroes, has the name of Luis Munoz, inscribed on Panel 5, Line 1 as the only Puerto Rican casualty of the war, however, there were more.

The "American Battle Monuments Commission, World War I Honor Roll" has listed the following Puerto Ricans as casualties: Santiago Cintron Sergeant, U.S. Army, 6th Infantry Regiment, 5th Division, died October 29, 1918, Buried at Plot B Row 34 Grave 9, Meuse-Argonne American Cemetery; Alberto J. Fernandes, Civilian, U.S. Army, 127th Quartermaster Labor Company, died September 2, 1918, buried at Plot B Row 19 Grave 10, Suresnes American Cemetery, Suresnes, France; and Alfredo A. Lima Civilian, died January 4, 1919, Buried at Plot B Row 20 Grave 3, Suresnes American Cemetery, Suresnes, France. Mario Cesar Miranda Cruz, from Arecibo died during combat in France and is buried in San Juan.

Puerto Ricans in the Military - WWII

In October 1940, the 295th and 296th Infantry Regiments of the Puerto Rican National Guard, founded by Major General Luis R. Esteves, were called into Federal Active Service and assigned to the Puerto Rican Department in accordance with the existing War Plan Orange.

During World War II, it is estimated by the Department of Defense that 65,034 Puerto Ricans served in the U.S. military. Soldiers from the island, serving in the 65th Infantry Regiment, participated in combat in the European Theater — in Germany and Central Europe. Those who resided in the mainland of the United States were assigned to regular units of the military and served either in the European or Pacific theaters of the war. Some families had multiple members join the Armed Forces. Seven brothers of the Medina family known as "The fighting Medinas" fought in the war. They came from Rio Grande, Puerto Rico and Brooklyn, New York. In some cases Puerto Ricans were subject to the racial discrimination, which at that time was widespread in the United States.

World War II was also the first conflict in which women, other than nurses, were allowed to serve in the U.S. Armed Forces. However, when the United States entered World War II, Puerto Rican nurses volunteered for service but were not accepted into the Army or Navy Nurse Corps. As a result, many of the island's women work forces migrated to the mainland U.S. to work in the factories which produced military equipment. In 1944, the Army Nurse Corps decided to actively recruit Puerto Rican nurses so that Army hospitals would not have to deal with the language barriers. Among them was Second Lieutenant Carmen Dumler, who became one of the first Puerto Rican female military officers.

The 149th Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) Post Headquarters Company was the first WAAC Company to go overseas, setting sail from New York Harbor for Europe on January 1943. The unit arrived in Northern Africa on January 27, 1943, and rendered overseas duties in Algiers within General Dwight D. Eisenhower's theatre headquarters. Tech 4 Carmen Contreras-Bozak, a member of this unit, was the first Hispanic to serve in the Women's Army Corps as an interpreter and in numerous administrative positions.

The 65th Infantry, after an extensive training program in 1942, was sent to Panama to protect the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the isthmus in 1943. On November 25, 1943, Colonel Antulio Segarra preceded Col. John R. Menclenhall as Commander of the 65th Infantry, thus becoming the first Puerto Rican Regular Army officer to command a Regular Army regiment.

On January 12, 1944, the 296th Infantry Regiment departed from Puerto Rico to the Panama Canal Zone. In April 1945, the unit returned to Puerto Rico and soon after was sent to Honolulu, Hawaii. The 296th arrived on June 25, 1945 and was attached to the Central Pacific Base Command at Kahuku Air Base. Lieutenant Colonel Gilberto Jose Marxuach, "The Father of the San Juan Civil Defense" was the commander of both the 1114th Artillery Company and the 1558th Engineers Company.

That same year, the 65th Infantry regiment was sent to North Africa, arriving at Casablanca, where they underwent further training. For some Puerto Ricans, this would be the first time that they were away from their homeland. this would serve as an inspiration for compositions of two of Puerto Rico's most renowned Bolero's; "En mi viejo San Juan" by Noel Estrada and "Despedida" (My Good-bye), a farewell song written by Pedro Flores and interpreted by Daniel Santos.

By April 29, 1944, the Regiment had landed in Italy and moved on to Corsica. On September 22, 1944, the 65th Infantry landed in France and was committed to action on the Maritime Alps at Peira Cava. On December 13, 1944, the 65th Infantry, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Juan Cesar Cordero Davila, relieved the 2nd Battalion of the 442nd Infantry Regiment, a Regiment which was made up of Japanese Americans under the command of Colonel Virgil R. Miller, a native of Puerto Rico. The 3rd Battalion fought against and defeated Germany's 34th Infantry Division's 107th Infantry Regiment. There were 47 battle casualties including Pvt. Sergio Sanchez-Sanchez and Sergeant Angel Martinez, from the town of Sabana Grande, who were the first two Puerto Ricans to be killed in combat action from the 65th Infantry.

On March 18, 1945, the regiment was sent to the District of Mannheim and assigned to military occupation duties. In all, the 65th Infantry participated in the battles of Naples-Fogis, Rome-Arno, and central Europe and of the Rhineland. On October 27, 1945, the regiment sailed from France, arriving at Puerto Rico on November 9, 1945. The regiment suffered a total of 23 soldiers killed in action.This was also the first time that Puerto Ricans played important roles as commanders in the Armed Forces of the United States. Besides Lieutenant Colonel Juan Cesar Cordero Davila who served with the 65th Infantry and Colonel Virgil R. Miller, a West Point graduate born in San Juan, who was the Regimental Commander of the 442d Regimental Combat Team, a unit which was composed of "Nisei" (second generation Americans of Japanese descent), that rescued Lost Texas Battalion of the 36th Infantry Division, in the forests of the Vosges Mountains in northeastern France.

Seven Puerto Ricans who graduated from the United States Naval Academy served in command positions in the Navy and the Marine Corps. There was Lieutenant General Pedro Augusto del Valle, the first Hispanic Marine Corps general, who played a key role in the Guadalcanal Campaign and the Battle of Guam and became the Commanding General of the First Marine Division. Del Valle played an instrumental role in the defeat of the Japanese forces in Okinawa and was in charge of the reorganization of Okinawa.

Admiral Horacio Rivero, Jr., USN, was the first Puerto Rican to become a four-star Admiral.Captain Marion Frederic Ramírez de Arellano, USN, was the first Hispanic submarine commanding officer. As submarine commander of the USS Balao (SS-285), he is credited with sinking two Japanese ships.Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benitez, USN, a highly decorated submarine commander was the recipient of two Silver Star Medals.Rear Admiral Jose M. Cabanillas, USN, was the Executive Officer of the USS Texas which participated in the invasions of North Africa and Normandy (D-Day).Rear Admiral Edmund Ernest García, USN, commander of the destroyer USS Sloat saw action in the invasions of Africa, Sicily, and France.Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl, USN, was the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the Naval Academy and received the Navy Cross.

Colonel Jaime Sabater, USMC, commanded the 1st Battalion, 9th Marines during the Bougainville amphibious operations. It was during this conflict that CWO2 Joseph B. Aviles, Sr., a member of the United States Coast Guard and the first Hispanic-American to be promoted to Chief Petty Officer, received a war-time promotion to Chief Warrant Officer (November 27, 1944), thus becoming the first Hispanic American to reach that level as well. Aviles, who served in the United States Navy as Chief Gunner's Mate in World War I, spent most of the war at St. Augustine, Florida training recruits.

Among the many Puerto Ricans who distinguished themselves in combat were Sergeant First Class Agustin Ramos Calero and the first three Puerto Ricans to be awarded the Distinguished Service Cross: PFC. Luis F. Castro, Private Anibal Irrizarry and PFC Joseph R. Martinez. PFC Joseph (Jose) R. Martinez, born in San German, Puerto Rico, destroyed a German Infantry unit and tank in Tunis by providing heavy artillery fire, saving his platoon from being attacked in the process. He received the Distinguished Service Cross from General George S. Patton, thus becoming the first Puerto Rican recipient of said military decoration. His citation reads as follows:

"The President of the United States takes pleasure in presenting the Distinguished Service Cross to Joseph R. Martinez, Private First Class, U.S. Army, for extraordinary heroism in connection with military operations against an armed enemy in action against enemy forces in March 1943. Private First Class Martinez's intrepid actions, personal bravery and zealous devotion to duty exemplify the highest traditions of the military forces of the United States and reflect great credit upon himself, his unit, and the United States Army."

Sergeant First Class Agustin Ramos Calero was awarded a total of 22 decorations and medals his actions in Europe during World War II, thus becoming most decorated soldier in the United States Military during that war.

Puerto Ricans also distinguished themselves as fighter pilots and bombardiers. Among those who served in either the Royal Canadian Air Force, the British Royal Air Force or the United States Army Air Force during the war were Captain Mihiel "Mike" Gilormini, Captain Alberto A. Nido and T/Sgt. Clement Resto.

Captain Mihiel "Mike" Gilormini served in the Royal Air Force and in United States Army Air Force as a fighter pilot during World War II. He was the recipient of the Silver Star Medal, the Air Medal with four clusters and the Distinguished Flying Cross 5 times. Gilormini later became the Founder of the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and retired as Brigadier General.

Captain Alberto A. Nido served in the Royal Canadian Air Force, the Royal Air Force and in the United States Army Air Force during the war. He flew missions as a bomber pilot for the RCAF and as a Super marine Spitfire fighter pilot for the RAF. As a member of the RAF, he belonged to 67th Reconnaissance Squadron who participated in 275 combat missions. Nido later transferred to the USAAF's 67th Fighter Group as a P-51 Mustang fighter pilot. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross with four oak leaf clusters and the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters. Nido co-founded the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and, as Gilormini, retired a Brigadier General.

T/Sgt. Clement Resto served with the 303rd Bomb Group and participated in numerous bombing raids over Germany. During a bombing mission over Düren, Germany, Resto's plane, a B-17 Flying Fortress, was shot down. He was captured by the Gestapo and sent to Stalag XVII-B where he spent the rest of the war as a prisoner of war. Resto, who lost an eye during his last mission, was awarded a Purple Heart, a POW Medal, and an Air Medal with one battle star after he was liberated from captivity.

Lieutenant Maria Rodriguez Denton (U.S. Navy), born in Guanica, Puerto Rico, was the first known woman of Puerto Rican descent who became an officer in the United States Navy as a member of the WAVES. It was Lt. Denton who forwarded the news (through channels) to President Harry S. Truman that the war had ended.

Puerto Rican soldiers were also subject to human experimentation by the United States Armed Forces. On Panama's San Jose Island, Puerto Rican soldiers were exposed to mustard gas to see if they reacted differently than their "white" counterparts. According to Susan L. Smith of the University of Alberta, the researchers were searching for evidence of race-based differences in the responses of the human body to mustard gas exposure.

According to the 4th Report of the Director of Selective Service of 1948, a total of 51,438 Puerto Ricans served in the Armed Forces during World War II, however the Department of Defense in its report titled "Number of Puerto Ricans serving in the U.S. Armed Forces during National Emergencies" stated that the total of Puerto Ricans who served was 65,034 and from that total 2,560 were listed as wounded.

Unfortunately, the exact total amount of Puerto Ricans who served in World War II in other units, besides those of Puerto Rico, cannot be determined because the military categorized Hispanics under the same heading as whites. The only racial groups to have separate stats kept were African-Americans and Asian Americans.

A total of 61,000 Puerto Ricans served in the military during the Korean War, most of them volunteers. A total of 121 Puerto Rican soldiers were among the 8,200 people listed as Missing in Action during the Korean War . This total does not include people of Puerto Rican descent who were born in the mainland of the United States.

Puerto Rico was officially ceded to the United States from Spain under the terms of the 1898 Treaty of Paris which concluded the Spanish-American War. It is a United States territory and upon the outbreak of World War I, the U.S. Congress approved the Jones-Shafroth Act, which granted Puerto Ricans citizenship. As a result Puerto Ricans have participated in every major conflict involving the United States from World War I onward.

Thousands of Puerto Ricans participated in these conflicts. Many lived and returned to their homeland, others were less fortunate and either died as a result of a hostile enemy action or have been listed as MIA (Missing In Action). Missing In Action (abbreviated MIA), is a term dating from 1946 referring to a member of the armed services who is reported missing following a combat mission and whose status as to injury, capture, or death is unknown. The missing combatant must not have been otherwise accounted for as either killed in action or a prisoner of war. The Korean War was one of two major conflicts (the other one was the Vietnam War) which accounted for the most Puerto Ricans missing in action.

According to "All POW-MIA Korean War Casualties," the total number of Puerto Rican casualties in the Korean War was 732; however, this total may vary slightly since some non-Puerto Ricans, such as Captain James W. Conner, were mistakenly included. Out of the 700 plus casualties suffered in the war, a total of 121 Puerto Rican men were listed as Missing in Action.

It was during the Korean War that Puerto Ricans suffered the most casualties as members of an all-Hispanic volunteer unit, the 65th Infantry Regiment. One of the problems the unit faced was the difference in languages: the common foot soldier spoke only Spanish, while the commanding officers were mostly English-speaking Americans.

In September 1952, the 65th Infantry was holding on to a hill known as "Outpost Kelly" until the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (Chinese officials maintained from the first that the Chinese fighting in Korea were volunteers) which had joined the North Koreans, overran the position. This became known as the "Battle for Outpost Kelly." Twice, the 65th Regiment was overwhelmed by Chinese artillery and driven off. The Battle of Outpost Kelly accounted for 73 of the men missing in action from the total of 121. Out of the 73 MIAs suffered by the regiment in the month of September, 50 of them occurred on the same day, September 18.

During the Korean War, two Puerto Ricans who were members of the United States Marine Corps, were awarded the Navy Cross, the second highest medal, after the Medal of Honor, that can be awarded by the Department of the Navy. One of the recipients was PFC. Ramón Núñez-Juarez who was listed as MIA and was posthumously awarded the medal. PFC Ramón Núñez-Juarez's remains have never been recovered and a symbolic burial with full military honors was held on October 25, 1970. There is a headstone with his name inscribed above an empty grave in the Puerto Rico National Cemetery, located in Bayamon, Puerto Rico. His name is inscribed in "El Monumento de la Recordacion," a monument dedicated to the Puerto Ricans who have fallen in combat, located in San Juan, Puerto Rico.

Puerto Ricans Missing in Action

There are 121 Puerto Ricans missing in action in the Korean War. All of these men served within the ranks of the United States Army with the sole exception of PFC. Ramón Núñez-Juarez, who served in the Marines.

Thousands of Puerto Ricans served in the Armed Forces of the United States during the Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War. Said war was a Cold War military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1959 to April 30, 1975. Puerto Ricans served in different positions throughout the military as commanders, fighter pilots and common foot soldiers. Many of them distinguished themselves in combat and were awarded the highest honors conferred by the military. Four were awarded the Medal of Honor, the highest United States military decoration, five were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC,) the second highest military decoration of the United States Army and two the Navy Cross, the second highest medal that can be awarded by the U.S. Navy and are awarded to members of the U.S. Navy or U.S. Marine Corps for heroism or distinguished service. Hundreds of men died in said conflict, either they were killed in action or they died as prisoners of war. Those whose bodies were never recovered were listed as missing in action.

Brief Summary of Puerto Rican Military Service in the United States Military

Puerto Ricans and people of Puerto Rican descent have participated as members of the United States Armed Forces in every conflict in which the United States has been involved since World War I.

One of the consequences of the Spanish-American War was that Puerto Rico was annexed by the United States in accordance to the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, ratified on December 10, 1898. Puerto Ricans became U.S. citizens as a result of the 1917 Jones-Shafroth Act and those who were eligible were expected to serve in the military. Puerto Ricans who resided in the island were assigned to the "Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry," organized on June 30, 1901, and served in World War I.

Those who resided in the mainland United States served in regular units of one of the following branches of the United States military, the United States Marine Corps, Army or the Navy. The Porto Rico Regiment was renamed the 65th Infantry Regiment under the Reorganization Act of June 4, 1920 and went on to serve in World War II and the Korean War as the only segregated Army unit where its members distinguished themselves in combat.

On July 25, 1952, the Constitution of Puerto Rico was proclaimed by Governor Luis Muñoz Marín and the island, which continues to be an unincorporated territory of the United States, adopted the name of Estado Libre Asociado (literally translated as "Free Associated State"), officially translated into English as Commonwealth, for its body politic. However, the military continued to be under U.S. jurisdiction. The 65th Infantry was deactivated in 1956, however, the Department of the Army was persuaded to transfer the 65th Infantry from the regular Army to the Puerto Rico National Guard. Since then Puerto Ricans have served in regular integrated units of the military.

The Vietnam War

The war was fought between communist North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of South Vietnam, supported by the United States and other nations. The United States entered the war to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam as part of their wider strategy of containment. Military advisors arrived beginning in 1950. U.S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s and combat units were deployed beginning in 1965. Involvement peaked in 1968 at the time of the Tet Offensive. During the Vietnam War, an estimated 48,000 Puerto Ricans served in the four branches of the armed forces. Among the highest ranking Puerto Ricans who served in the United States Navy and had distinguished military careers were Admiral Horacio Rivero, Jr. and Vice Admiral Diego E. Hernández.

Admiral Horacio Rivero, Jr., the first Puerto Rican four-star Admiral in the United States Navy, oversaw the day-to-day work of the Navy as the Vice Chief of Naval Operations. He was a stern supporter of a "brown-water navy” or riverine force on the rivers of South Vietnam.

Lieutenant Diego E. Hernández, who retired from the Navy with the rank of Vice Admiral, flew two combat tours in Vietnam during the war. He also served as Aide and Flag Lieutenant to Commander, Carrier Division 14. At sea, he was the commander of a fighter squadron, a carrier air wing, and a fleet oiler (the USS Truckee). Hernandez later became the first Hispanic to be named Vice Commander, North American Aerospace Defense Command(NORAD).

Among the Puerto Ricans who served in the United States Air Force and had distinguished military careers were Major General Salvador E. Felices, Brigadier General Antonio Maldonado, Brigadier General Antonio J. Ramos, Brigadier General Jose M. Portela, Brigadier General Ruben A. Cubero and Colonel Hector Andres Negroni.

Major General Salvador E. Felices held various positions within the military. On June 1968, he was named commander of the 306th Bombardment Wing. He flew 39 combat bombing missions over North Vietnam during the Vietnam War in a B-52 aircraft. In 1969, he became the commander of the 823rd Air Division which covered the regions of Florida, Puerto Rico, North Carolina and Georgia. On May 1970, Felices was named Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff at the Headquarters of Strategic Air Command. He was responsible for SAC's intercontinental ballistic missile operational testing programs."

Brigadier General Antonio Maldonado, who in 1967 became the youngest pilot and Aircraft Commander of a B-52 Stratofortress nuclear bomber was assigned in January 1971 to the 432nd Tactical Fighter Reconnaissance Wing, Udon Royal Thai Air Force Base in Thailand. His active participation in the war included 183 air combat missions over North and South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia logging more than 400 combat flying hours in the F-4C Phantom.

Brigadier General Antonio J. Ramos, the first Hispanic to serve as commander, Air Force Security Assistance Center, Air Force Materiel Command, and dual-hatted as Assistant to the Commander for International Affairs, Headquarters Air Force Materiel Command, also served in Vietnam. In November 1971, Ramos who was then a Lieutenant, was assigned to the 310th Tactical Airlift Squadron, Phan Rang Air Base and Tan Son Nhut Air Base, South Vietnam. In August 1972, he was transferred to U-Tapao Royal Thai Naval Airfield in Thailand where he was the Base Operations Officer until November 1972.

Brigadier General Jose M. Portela, as a First Lieutenant, was sent to the Republic of Vietnam during the war and participated in numerous combat missions. On June 8, 1972, he was promoted to Captain and on September 1972, was reassigned to the 3rd Military Airlift Squadron at Charleston Air Force Base, South Carolina as a C-5 pilot. During his stint there he was assigned to the C-141s and in 1972 became the youngest C-141 Starlifter aircraft commander and captain at the age of 22. He served at CAF until July 1973, when he joined the Air Force Reserve as a C-5A Initial Cadre at the 312th Airlift Squadron at Travis Air Force Base in California.

Brigadier General Ruben A. Cubero was a Captain when he was sent to the Republic of Vietnam on May 1969 and was assigned to the 1st Brigade, 25th Infantry Division, 19th Tactical Air Support Squadron, Tay Ninh West where he flew an OV-10 and served as a forward air controller. On November 1969, he was reassigned to the 19th Tactical Air Support Squadron, at Bien Hoa Air Base. Cubero later became the first Hispanic graduate of the United States Air Force Academy to be named Dean of the Faculty of the academy.

Colonel Hector Andres Negroni, the first Puerto Rican graduate of the United States Air Force Academy, was a Captain when he participated in combat missions during the war and accumulated over 600 combat hours. During his tour he served in the 553th Reconnaissance Squadron stationed in Korat, Thailand and as Chief of Combat Operation in the 7th Airborne Command and Control Squadron in Udon, Thailand.

The Medal of Honor

Four Puerto Ricans were awarded the Medal of Honor, the highest United States military decoration for heroism. They were Captain Humbert Roque Versace, Captain Eurípides Rubio, PFC Carlos James Lozada, and Specialist Fourth Class Hector Santiago-Colon. All four were members of the United States Army and all four awards were posthumous.

The Navy Cross

Two Puerto Ricans were awarded the Navy Cross, the second highest medal that can be awarded by the U.S. Navy and are awarded to members of the U.S. Navy or U.S. Marine Corps for heroism or distinguished service. They were Sergeant Angel Mendez and Corporal Miguel Rivera-Sotomayor. Both men were members of the United States Marine Corps.

Corporal Angel Mendez (1946–1967) was among the many men who volunteered to join the Marine Corps right after graduating from high school. He was assigned to Company F, 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines, 1st Marine Division on March 16, 1967 and was conducting a search and destroy mission with his company when his company came under attack from a Viet Cong battalion. Half of a platoon was pinned down under enemy fire and Mendez volunteered to lead a squad to assist the pinned-down Marines in returning to friendly lines with their two dead and two seriously wounded. Mendez exposed himself and opened fire on the enemy. His Platoon Commander, Lieutenant Ronald D. Castille was seriously wounded and he fell, unable to move. Mendez shielded him with his body as he applied a dressing to the wound. He picked up the Lieutenant and carried him to friendly lines, which were more than seventy-five meters away. Mendez was hit in the shoulder, yet he chose to act as rear man and he continued to shield his Lieutenant with his own body until he was mortally wounded.

Mendez was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross and promoted to Sergeant. For saving the life of his platoon commander, Lieutenant Castille, (now one of the seven justices of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania), U.S. Senator Charles Schumer has recommended that Mendez' award be upgraded to Medal of Honor.

Corporal Miguel Rivera-Sotomayor, born in Philadelphia, Pa. to Puerto Rican parents, belonged to Company F, 2nd Battalion, 9th Marines, 3rd Marine Division. Rivera-Sotomayor silenced enemy machine guns and allowed his platoon to move from its pinned down position to establish an effective base of fire against the enemy.

The Distinguished Service Cross

Five Puerto Ricans were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC), the second highest military decoration of the United States Army. Actions which merit the Distinguished Service Cross must be of such a high degree to be above those required for all other U.S. combat decorations but not meeting the criteria for the Medal of Honor. They were Staff Sergeant Efrain Figueroa-Melendez, Spc4 Fruto James Oquendo, Sergeant First Class Wilfredo Pagan-Lozada, First Sergeant Ramiro Ramirez and Private First Class Reinaldo Rodriguez. Four of the awards were posthumous.

The Most Decorated Soldier

Sergeant First Class Jorge Otero Barreto from the town of Vega Baja, Puerto Rico was the most decorated soldier in the Vietnam War. Otero Barreto joined the U.S. Army and from 1961 to 1970 served in five tours in Southeast Asia, starting as an advisor who helped train Vietnamese troops. Otero-Barreto participated in 200 combat missions and was awarded 38 military decorations, making him the most decorated person in the United States military of the war. Among his many decorations are 3 Silver Stars, 5 Bronze Stars with Valor, 5 Purple Hearts and 5 Air Medals (one each for every 5th mission which involved a helicopter).

Missing in Action

A total of 18 Puerto Ricans were listed as Missing in Action (MIA). This number does not include those who resided in the United States mainland, only those who resided in Puerto Rico. They were all members of the Army with the exceptions of First Lieutenant Jose Hector Ortiz who was a member of the United States Air Force and PFC. Jose Ramon Sanchez a U.S. Marine. PFC. Humberto Acosta-Rosario is the only one whose body has never been recovered and is currently still listed as MIA.

Racial Tensions of the 1960s

The Vietnam War coincided with the protests of the Civil Rights Movement during the 1960s America. Minority groups such as Hispanics were discriminated at home and within the U.S. armed forces. According to a study made in 1990 by the Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, called the National Survey of the Vietnam Generation (NSVG), Hispanics, among them Puerto Ricans, were younger than both Black and White majority veterans when they went to Vietnam. Hispanics experienced more prejudice and discrimination in Vietnam than Blacks.

Minority groups would often band together with those of their own racial or ethnic backgrounds. One such group was "Puerto Rican Power in Unity" which eventually became "Latin Power in Unity." The objective of this group was to unite all the Hispanic Marines regardless of their national background as a brotherhood. Together they shared their cultures and demanded to be treated equally as their Black and White counterparts in the military.

Aftermath

On April 23, 1975, President Gerald Ford gave a televised speech declaring an end to the Vietnam War. Some sources state that a total of 345 Puerto Ricans who resided in the island died in combat, however, according to a report by the Department of Defense, titled "Number of Puerto Ricans serving in the U.S. Armed Forces during National Emergencies" the total number of Puerto Ricans who died was 455 and that were wounded was 3,775.

Because of lack of separate documentation, the total number of Puerto Ricans who lived in the mainland United States and perished is unknown. At the time, Puerto Ricans were not tabulated separately, but were generally included in the general white population census count. Separate statistics were kept for African Americans and Asian Americans. The names of those who perished are inscribed in both the Vietnam Veterans Memorial located in Washington, D.C. and in El Monumento de la Recordacion (The Wall of Remembrance) located in San Juan, Puerto Rico.

According to a study made by the Department of Epidemiology and Public Health and the Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, Puerto Rican Vietnam veterans, have a higher risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and experience more severe PTSD symptoms than non-Hispanic white Vietnam veterans.However, despite the hardships suffered by the experiences of war, many went on to live normal everyday lives. Among the Puerto Ricans who served in Vietnam and held important presidential administrative positions in the Administration of President George W. Bush were Major General William A. Navas Jr., who was awarded the Bronze Star Medal and was named Assistant Secretary of the Navy in June 6, 2001 and Dr. Richard Carmona, a former Green Beret who was awarded two Purple Hearts and was appointed Surgeon General in March 2002.

Puerto Ricans have served as members of the United States Armed Forces and have fought in every major conflict in which the United States has been involved from World War I onward. Many Puerto Ricans, including those of Puerto Rican descent, have distinguished themselves during combat as members of the five branches of the U.S. Military, the Army, Marines, Navy, Air Force and the Coast Guard.

Five Puerto Ricans have been awarded the United States' highest military decoration the Medal of Honor, six have been awarded the Navy Cross and seventeen have been awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. Two of the Medal of Honor winners are from hometown. Utuado is very proud of these two winners who paid the final sacrifice for our country.

The Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) is the second highest military decoration of the United States Army, awarded for extreme gallantry and risk of life in actual combat with an armed enemy force. Actions which merit the Distinguished Service Cross must be of such a high degree to be above those required for all other U.S. combat decorations but not meeting the criteria for the Medal of Honor.

Why Puerto Ricans Do Not Vote in Federal Elections

Puerto Ricans who reside in Puerto Rico cannot vote in federal elections as ruled by the 1922 Supreme Court decision. In order to vote in federal elections, the individual must be a permanent resident of the USA. However, Puerto Ricans who reside in the United States of America can vote in insular elections as long as they have temporary address in Puerto Rico.

The following is a summary of the rulings associated with the rights and citizenship status of all Puerto Rican residing on the island:

United States Recognition of Puerto Rican Citizenship

Puerto Rican citizenship replaced the Spanish citizenship that Puerto Ricans enjoyed at the time of the American invasion in 1898. Such Puerto Rican citizenship was granted by Spain in 1897.

The Congress of the United States enacted the Foraker Act of 1900, which replaced the governing military regime in Puerto Rico with a civil form of government. Section VII of this act created a Puerto Rican citizenship for the residents "born in Puerto Rico and, therefore, subject to its jurisdiction." This citizenship was reaffirmed by the United States Supreme Court in 1904 by its ruling in Gonzales v. Williams which denied that Puerto Ricans were United States citizens and labeled them as noncitizen nationals.

United StatesCitizenship

On March 2, 1917, the Jones-Shafroth Act was signed, granting collective United States citizenship to Puerto Ricans without rescinding their Puerto Rican citizenship.

In 1922 the U.S. Supreme court in the case of Balzac v. Porto Rico ruled that the full protection and rights of the U.S constitution does not apply to residents of Puerto Rico until they come to reside in the United States proper.

Luis Muñoz Rivera, who participated in the creation of the Jones-Shafroth Act, gave a speech in the U.S. House floor that argued in favor of Puerto Rican citizenship. He declared that if the earth were to swallow the island, Puerto Ricans would prefer American citizenship to any citizenship in the world. But as long as the island existed, the residents preferred Puerto Rican citizenship.

Also the Puerto Rico Supreme Court, in 1943, cited U.S. Supreme Court case Snowden v. Hughes, 321 U.S. 1, 7 (1943) that affirm: The protection extended to citizens of the United States by the privileges and immunities clause includes those rights and privileges which, under the laws and Constitution of the United States, are incident to citizenship of the United States but does not include rights pertaining to state citizenship and derived solely from the relationship of the citizen and his state established by state law. The right to become a candidate for state office, like the right to vote for the election of state officers, is a right or privilege of state citizenship, not of national citizenship, which alone is protected by the privileges and immunities clause.

The U.S Ambassador Cabot Lodge in a memorandum sent to the United Nations in 1953 recognized that "the people of Puerto Rico continue to be citizens of the United States as well as of Puerto Rico."

Puerto Rican Citizenship Reaffirmed

1994: Puerto Rican activist Juan Mari Brás flew to Venezuela and renounced his US citizenship before a consular agent in the US Embassy. Mari Bras through his renunciation of U.S. citizenship, sought to redefine Section VII as a source of law that recognized a Puerto Rican nationality separate from that of the United States.1995: His denaturalization was confirmed by the US State Department. Among the arguments that ensued over his action was whether he would now be able to vote in elections in Puerto Rico. 1997: The Supreme Court of Puerto Rico through its ruling in Miriam J. Ramirez de Ferrer v. Juan Mari Brás reaffirmed the Puerto Rican citizenship by ruling that U.S. citizenship was not a requirement to vote in Puerto Rico. According to the court's majority opinion, the Puerto Rican citizenship is recognized several times in the Puerto Rican constitution including section 5 of article III, section 3 of article IV, and section 9 of article V. In a 2006 memorandum, the Secretary of Justice of Puerto Rico concluded, based on the Mari Bras case, that the Puerto Rican citizenship is "separate and different" from the United States citizenship.

The Puerto Rico Supreme Court decision affirmed that persons born in Puerto Rico and persons subject to their jurisdiction are Citizens of Puerto Rico under the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Constitution. The Court cited as part of the applicable jurisdiction to decide this case, United States v. Cruikshank, 92 U.S. 542 (1875) pp 549, the U.S. Supreme Court affirm: There is in our political system a government of each of the several States, and a Government of the United States. Each is distinct from the others, and has citizens of its own who owe it allegiance, and whose rights, within its jurisdiction, it must protect. The same person may be at the same time a citizen of the United States and a citizen of a State, but his rights of citizenship under one of those governments will be different from those he has under the other.

Puerto Ricans Get Less Military Benefits than Other U.S. Citizens

Military widows and veterans in Puerto Rico receive fewer health benefits than their counterparts in the United States, even though Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens and serve shoulder-to-shoulder with their countrymen in Iraq and Afghanistan. That means that, like all island spouses whose soldier husbands or wives were killed in the latest U.S. wars, the widow of Army soldier would get less than fully paid health insurance -- simply for living in Puerto Rico.

The reason is that the Pentagon considers Puerto Rico an "overseas" location. Yet, military retirees and survivors in Hawaii and Alaska, also considered "overseas" by the Pentagon for purposes of the health plan, receive benefits on par with their fellow citizens who live in the contiguous 48 states. While active duty military and their families in Puerto Rico are eligible for TRICARE Prime, the Pentagon's fully paid HMO option, the under-65 retirees on the island are limited to a program called TRICARE Standard.

TRICARE Standard is equivalent to a health insurance program that the Defense Department itself deemed inadequate several years ago. Survivors of soldiers killed in war, if they live in Puerto Rico, qualify for the Prime program for two years, then must switch to Standard. If the husband, who is from Puerto Rico, goes to Iraq and is killed in action, and his wife, also Puerto Rican, wants to return home to the comfort of her family and friends, she receives less than full health care benefits,"

Send and writhen by Dr. Frank J. Collazo

Bibliography

Foraker Act

http://wapedia.mobi/en/Foraker_Act

German–Spanish Treaty (1899)

http://wapedia.mobi/en/German%E2%80%93Spanish_Treaty_(1899)

Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients

http://hispanicmedalofhonor.com/recipients.html

Jones–Shafroth Act

http://wapedia.mobi/en/Jones-Shafroth_Act

Joseph B. Foraker, Senator from Ohio

http://wapedia.mobi/en/Joseph_B._Foraker